23 September 2012 Bryman, A. (2008). Social Research Methods (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA. Some of you may or may not be interested in this, but this was essentially my crash course/note taking in sociology methods. I keep it here for future reference. I may or may not modify it or add to it. INTRODUCTION Questions: Is a natural science model of the research process applicable to the study of society? Why or why not? What kind or kinds of research findings are regarded as legitimate and acceptable (q.v. Chapter 25, p. 505, Politics and ethics in social research)? Structure of the Book: CH 1 – Nature of relationship between theory and research CH 2 – Research design and research questions CH 3 (Part 2) – Nature of quantitative research CH 4 – Sampling issues CH 5 – Structured interviewing CH 6 – Questionnaire design CH 7 – Asking questions CH 8 – Structured observation CH 9 – Content analysis CH 10 – Data analysis CH 11 – Quantitative analysis tools CH 13 (Part 3) – Qualitative research overview CH 14 – Ethnography and participant observation CH 15 – Qualitative interviews CH 16 – Focus group method CH 17 – Conversation and discourse analysis CH 18 – Qualitative document analysis CH 19 – Approaches to qualitative data analysis CH 21 (Part 4: Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis) – Blurred distinctions between qualitative and quantitative CH 22 – Integration of these two methods CH 24 – The writing of research CH 25 – Ethical and political issues CH 26 – Research projects: Step by step How to Use This Book: Wider methodological and philosophical issues (CH 1, 21) Survey research (CH 4, 7, 11, 23) Qualitative practical issues (CH 2, all of Part 3) Analyzing data (CH 11, 19) Formulating research questions (Part 1, CH 26) Doing your own research (CH 26) Writing (CH 24, 26) Ethics (CH 25) Qualitative vs Quantitative (CH 1, 13, 21, 22) CHAPTER 1 Nature of the relationship between Theory and Research Theory guides research = Deductive approach Theory is an outcome of research = Inductive approach Theory Hypothesis Data collection Findings Hypothesis Confirmed Rejected Revision of Theory Epistemological Issues (The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its pre-suppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity.): What is acceptable knowledge in a discipline. Can the social world be studied according to the same principles, procedures, ethos, as the natural sciences, primarily Positivism, an epistemological position that advocates the application of methods of the natural sciences to the study of social reality and beyond, which includes: Only phenomena and knowledge confirmed by the senses (Phenomenalism). Theory that generates hypotheses that can be tested, that allow for explanations of laws to be assessed (Deductivism). Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the basis of laws (Inductivism). Must be “objective” in that science must be conducted so that it is value free. There must be a clear distinction between scientific and normative states. Ontological Issues/Considerations (The theory of the nature of social issues from that department of the science of metaphysics which investigates and explains the nature and essential properties and relations of all beings, as such, or the principles and causes of being.) that are situationally defined by the social circumstances in question. Ontological issues are primarily manifested in: Objectivism, that asserts that social phenomenon and their meanings have an existence independent of social actors. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative: Deductive approach Natural scientific model External, objective social reality Qualitative Inductive generation of theory Interpretivism Constructivism — constantly shifting social reality The values of the social researcher influence his social research. CHAPTER 2: Research Design Research Design: a framework for the collection and analysis of data that reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research process (Research design is used in conjunction with research strategy — either quantitative or qualitative) including: Expressing causal connections Generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those forming part of the investigation Understanding the behaviors and the meaning of that behaviour in the specific social context Having a temporal appreciation of social phenomenon and their interconnections Research Method: a technique for collecting data Criteria for evaluation of social research Reliability (consistency of measures) Replication Validity (integrity of the conclusions) Research Questions: Crucial. No research questions or poorly formulated questions will lead to poor research that is unfocused. Guide the literature search Guide the decisions about the kind of research design to employ Guide decisions about what data to collect and from whom Guide the analysis of your data Guide the writing of your data Guide you from going off on any unnecessary tangents Research Area: Select Aspects Of Research Area Research Questions Select Research Questions Research Designs: Experimental – experimental group (aka treatment group) vs. control group Cross-Sectional or Survey – questionnaires, structured observation, content analysis, official statistics, and diaries Longitudinal – data collected on a sample of people, documents, etc. on at least two occasions. This is generally time and cost intensive. Case-Study – detailed and intensive analysis of a single case (community, school, family, organization, person, or event) Comparative – study using more or less identical methods of two contrasting cases in order to illuminate existing teory or generate theoretical insights as a result of contrasting findings uncovered through the comparison. CHAPTER 3 Nature of Quantitative Research Process: Theory Hypothesis Research Design Devise measures of concepts* Select research site Select research subjects/responders Administer research instruments/collect data Process data Analyze data Findings/Conclusions Write up findings/conclusions *Concepts are the building blocks of theory that represent the points** around which social research is conducted. Concepts require Indicators. An indicator is a measure of a concept or an operational definition, an indicator or indicators that will stand for the concept when no direct measure is available. **Points are labels we give to our social world, e.g. “culture,” “academic achievement,” “conversion,” “healthy lifestyle”. Measuring: Allows us to delineate fine differences between people in terms of the characteristic in question. Gives us a consistent device for making such distinctions. Provides the basis for more precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts. Main Preoccupations of quantitative researchers: Measurement Causality Generalization Replication CHAPTER 4: Sampling Sample: A segment of the population that is selected for research. A sample is a subset of the population. Sampling: Proper Steps in conducting a social survey Issues to researched Review literature/theories relating to topic area Formulate research questions Consider whether a social survey is appropriate or consider an alternate method Consider what kind of population will be appropriate Consider what kind of sample design will be employed Explore whether there is a sampling frame that can be employed Decide on a sampling size and note that absolute size is more important than relative size Decide on mode of administration, whether face to face, phone, postal, email, or web Develop questions and devise answer alternatives for closed questions Review questions and assess face validity Pilot questions Finalize questionnaire and schedule Sample from population >>Administer questionnaire and schedule to sample Follow up on non-respondents at least once Transform completed questionnaires/schedules into computer readable data Enter data into statistical analysis program like SPSS Analyze data Interpret findings Consider implications of findings for research questions. Chapter 5: Structured Interviewing or research interviewing in which all respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order with the aid of a formal interview schedule. Chapter 6: Self-completion questionnaires where the respondents answer without the aid of an interviewer Chapter 7: Asking open or closed questions Chapter 8: Structured observation Chapter 9: Content analysis or quantitative analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quantify content in terms of predetermined categories in a systematic and replicable manner Chapter 10: Secondary analysis and official statisitcs collected by others and the government Chapter 11: Quantitative data analysis or the quantification in the collection and analysis of data that is usually deductivist and objectivist as a research strategy. Chapter 13: Nature of qualitative research Main steps: 1. General research questions 2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects 3. Collection of relevant data 5b. Collection of further data 4. Interpretation of data 5. Conceptual and theoretical work 5b. Tighter specification of the research questions (see 5b, above) 6. Write up findings/conclusions Chapter 14: Ethnography and participant observation that entail the extended involvement of the researcher in the social life of the study of the subjects. Chapter 15: Interviewing in Qualitative research is less structured and includes focus groups Chapter 16: Focus groups CHAPTER 17: Language in qualitative research Conversation analysis Discourse analysis Nonverbal communication analysis Chapter 18: Documents as sources of data Chapter 19: Qualitative data analysis CHAPTER 24: Writing up social research Utilizes rhetoric Introduction Theory Data Measurement (how main concepts in research are measured) Methods and Models – outlines the different ways in which the relationships between the variables might be conceptualized and the implications of using different multivariate analysis approaches Results Conclusion CHAPTER 25: Ethics and Politics Whether it is: Harmful to participants Lack of informed consent Invasion of privacy Deception CHAPTER 26: Doing a research project Understand the university’s expectations Start thinking about your research area early on Identifying research questions helps to: Guide literature search Guide to decide what data needs collecting Guide your analysis of data Guide your writing up of data Focus your paper and stop/prevent it from going off into unnecessary directions and tangents Necessities: Using your supervisor Managing time and resources Searching existing literature Preparing for research (write literature reviews to practice and to study others) Doing research and analyzing results Writing research Start early Get feedback Avoid biased language Structure your writing: Title page Acknowledgements Contents Abstract Introduction Literature review (Review main ideas and research relating to your area of interest) Research methods Results: bulk of findings Discussion: Implications of your findings for your research questions that have driven your research. Conclusion Appendices References Related